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REFLECTIONS ON GRAVITY In PART 3 we have taken a global perspective on gravity. Our theory as outlined in PARTS 1 and 2 has turned out to be similar to General Relativity with a disagreement here and there. In PART 3 we developed a new definition of the "rate of time" as a quantity that defines the total rate of activity of matter, and includes the ticking action of a clock, its motion and gravity potential. In General Relativity, "time" is what the clock measures, but in our theory the clock measures only a part of "time". Our rate of time turns out to be a universal constant in a manner similar to how the speed of light is a universal constant for General relativity. Another disagreement which we have so far only alluded to in PART 2 is that according to our theory, the gravity potential can not exceed "C.C/2" (the potential at the "event horizon"), while in General Relativity the potential can go beyond that, leading to "black holes", "naked singularities" and other theoretical headaches like infinitely compressed matter. We will look at this issue more closely here. We will also consider how gravity fields are generated in Nature and possibly artificially. This process will be defined, although not fully explained. That explanation requires us to make some changes to electromagnetic theory, something that is easily as large an undertaking as this series of articles on gravity. THE PREVALENCE OF STATES OF PERMANENT VIBRATION Modern ideas on the atomic character of matter are only a couple of centuries old. At first it was thought that what we now call atoms were the smallest indivisible and indestructible pieces of a particular element. About a hundred years ago atoms were discovered to be divisible into even smaller parts. At first only three fundamental particles seemed to be the building blocks of all atoms, but the picture changed quickly and the number of subatomic particles now rivals the number of elements. However, it is not only "matter" which was found to have an "atomic" character. Energy and angular momentum were found to be "atomic" as well, appearing in lumps or quanta. Another surprise was the universal prevalence of undamped vibrations. On the scale of our daily experience, vibrations tend to die out as their energy is dissipated and changed into other forms. On the atomic and subatomic scale, everything is vibrating, and these vibrations can go on virtually for ever. Quantum Theory is all about states of vibration. In PART 1 we proposed that all the energy associated with any object or subatomic particle manifests as electromagnetic fields. When we go into more detail, we will find that these fields are typically in a state of perpetual motion and/or vibration. It is the only way in which they can be stable. Quantum vibratory states are invariably confined to a finite, usually very small volume, like the volume of a subatomic particle, or an atom, molecule, crystal or lump of matter. We will refer to them as "internal" vibrations. We suggest here for later verification that about (or perhaps precisely) half of the rest mass of any object is vibrational energy. THE CREATION OF GRAVITY FIELDS The internal vibrations of matter are not totally sealed off from the surrounding space. These vibrations are universally electromagnetic in character, and "leak" into the space around the vibrating particle or object forming a radial standing wave pattern of "external" vibrations. The energy in the external standing wave does not escape. It is trapped in the space about the source particle and builds until there is a state of equilibrium between the inner and outer vibrations. When such particles are brought closer together, this equilibrium is upset and more energy is fed into the external vibrations. When the particles move apart, energy flows back into the internal vibrations again. Note that these vibrations do not create photons, which would carry energy away permanently. The electric field of an electron or proton is an inverse square radial field, very similar to the gravity field of FIGURE 5 in PART 2. It is a field of force, and energy is associated with it. The energy per unit volume (or energy density) of such a field varies as the inverse fourth power of radius. The gravity field is also an inverse square field, and its energy density must also vary as the inverse fourth power of radius. Now, suppose that the internal vibrations of an electron or proton were to agitate the electric charge of that particle. This agitation would propagate out radially, the energy density of the disturbance decreasing inversely as the square of the radius (which is typical of radiation). Suppose further that at a very large radius this radial disturbance were reflected back towards the particle. An equilibrium would be established but its energy density would vary as the inverse square of the radius. This standing wave could not be our gravity field because we already know that it has to have an energy density which varies as the inverse fourth power of the radius. THE CONCEPT OF ELECTRIC FIELD SHEAR The theory of electromagnetic action proposed by Clerk Maxwell in 1863 is effectively still the theory we use today. I have proposed the concept of "electric shear" to explain some of the quantum facts that Maxwell's theory does not explain. FIGURE 12(a) shows a radial electric field. FIGURE 12(b) shows a disturbance of the electric field emanating from the core of the field and radiating outwards. Notice that the disturbance takes the form of a "shear stress", in that the direction of the disturbed field is at an angle to the radius and the undisturbed radial field. At "AB" the field has "sheared". Notice how, on the inside of "AB" the field now terminates on a layer of charge, and the field is radial again. Outside "AB the field begins on a layer of opposite charge, and this field is also radial at its charge layer. The two charge layers can slide past each other without resistance. Field shear has the effect of reflecting the disturbance on each side of the shear layer back, away from the itself.  It is reasonable to assume that field shear will take place when the energy density of the disturbance has reached a definite percentage of the energy density of the undisturbed field. We assume that field shear forms when this critical shear stress is achieved, and disappears when the shear stress falls below this value and the charges in the shear layer have aligned again. The result is a complex standing wave pattern with an energy density that varies as the inverse fourth power of radius, and a dynamic process which traps the disturbances in the electric field, preventing the escape of energy. It is a process which always tends towards an equilibrium, and so is responsive to changing conditions.  FIGURE 13 is a graph showing two energy density functions, "A" and "B". "A=a/R.R.R.R" and graphs the energy density of a field disturbance which is strong enough to just create electric shear in the radial electric field. This graph varies as the inverse fourth power of radius. "B=b/R.R" graphs the energy density of a disturbance of the electric field as it propagates from the core of the field radially outwards, which varies as the inverse square (second power) of radius. Regardless of the values of "a" and "b", these graphs always cross at some value of radius, "R(c)", which has the value "Sqr(a/b)". For values of radius greater than R(c), the electric field will shear, but for smaller values it will not. Thus, a disturbance propagates for a distance and at a critical radius the part of the disturbance exceeding the value "A" will be reflected back. A disturbance of any magnitude, however small will eventually arrive at a radius at which it is reflected. The stronger the disturbance (larger "b"), the closer is the point of reflection to the core of the field. As a consequence of this, the vibrational energy density about a core charge varies according to an inverse fourth power law. This distribution of energy density is produced by a vast number of disturbances of varying strengths frequencies and durations, and is an averaged out distribution. A practical gravity field is produced by a vast number of core sources at different distances from any particular point of interest, and there is also an averaging of the effects of these field sources. Quantum Theory has already discovered this random energy fluctuation in space. The electric fields of the electrons and protons and/or nuclei of matter are largely cancelled out, but their vibrational action persists. The situation is very similar to the magnetic field around a wire carrying an electric current. It is the motion of the electron displacement fields that creates the magnetic field, not the electron's electric field, which is cancelled out by the positive charges. In a similar way, we attribute the standing wave pattern to the disturbance of the electric displacement field of the core charge. This trapped vibrational energy changes the values of "e" and "u" of space in a manner very similar to the way in which a gaseous, liquid or solid medium can change "e" or "u". THE DYNAMICS OF GRAVITY FIELDS Notice that the gravity field is an electromagnetic phenomenon. By invoking electric shear, we have ensured that the standing wave field has the required inverse fourth power of radius variation of energy density, and we have also provided an effective confinement for this vibrational energy. This same mechanism can be invoked to explain how the energy of quantum states is so effectively kept in a finite space. While the trapped energy propagates back and forth at the speed of light, the equilibrium condition requires numerous reflections and is achieved over a longer time than the time it would take for the unreflected signal to propagate a field change to any particular distance from the core of the field. We can now consider a constant gravity field moving in space. In this case equilibrium has been attained. The field around the moving mass is now "retarded", meaning that in front of the mass the field is slightly weaker and behind it slightly stronger than the field strength at that distance with a stationary field. In both cases the instantaneous value of the field corresponds to the position of the mass a little before that instant, the difference in time being equal to the time taken by a disturbance to propagate from the mass to the point under consideration, at the speed of light. DOES ALL MATTER CREATE GRAVITY EQUALLY? The mechanism of gravity proposed above raises the question: "Does all matter act equally in generating gravity? Consider for example a proton and an electron. The proton has about 2000 times the mass of the electron. If we assume that the gravity field is generated in direct proportion to the mass, then the field of the proton has to be about 2000 times stronger than that of the electron. If we could show that all the subatomic particles in a bound state have exactly half or some other fixed fraction of their total self energy in the form of vibration, then we could argue that all subatomic particles, charged or neutral contribute to gravity equally and in direct proportion to their mass, as Newton originally proposed. The property which relates directly to this question is the gravitational constant "G", which was introduced in PART 2. It is worth noting that while many natural constants have been reliably measured to ten or more decimal place accuracy, the best measures of "G" are accurate only to a few decimal places. This is not just a reflection of the experimental difficulty involved, because it is not unusual for the estimates of likely errors to be much smaller than discrepancies between independent measurements of "G". If different particles of equal mass did not generate equal gravity fields, the resultant field would still act on equal masses equally, because it is the gradient in "e.u" which creates the gravity force, and given our postulate that all energy and mass are electromagnetic, the gradient in "e.u" will affect all particles equally. There is good reason for entertaining the hope that there are ways of creating gravity fields artificially using far less matter than does Nature. Thus, if we were to find differences in the value of "G" for different kinds particles, it might not pose any serious theoretical difficulties. THE ADDITIVE RULE FOR GRAVITY EQUATION (29) of PART 2 is Newton's rule for the action of gravity. We repeat it here for convenienence: g(m) = m.G/(d.d) (29) This equation relates to the physical situation of FIGURE 5 in PART 2. Newton had proven that for a spherical body for which matter at equal distances from the centre had equal density, the total effect of all that mass on any point outside the body was exactly the same as if all the matter were located at the centre of the body. This is why distances are always measured to the centre, or at least centre of gravity of a body. EQUATION (29) tells us that "g(m)" is directly proportional to "m", which implies that each particle that makes up "m" exerts exactly the same force as it would if alone in space. Its action is neither amplified nor diminished by the other particles near it and is said to be "linear". As long as the gravity potential "P" is well below the limit "C.C/2", the addition of gravity fields is indeed linear. Another feature of this linearity is that if the sphere of FIGURE 7 PART 2 were to collapse to half its size but retained the same mass, the force exerted on any object outside the sphere would stay the same provided its distance from the centre of the sphere remained the same. THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY POTENTIAL ON GRAVITY To understand how "P" affects the gravity interaction, we will perform a gravity experiment based on FIGURE 6, PART 2, but instead of measuring the force "F", we will measure the acceleration "g(m)" of the smaller mass "m", as given in EQUATION (29), PART 2. This experiment is carried out "at infinity" where "P" is zero. Having done this, we will transport our apparatus to the surface of say a neutron star and repeat our experiment. We leave our clock at the site of the first experiment, and radio time signals to the second experimental site. The distance between the two sites remains constant, and so the signal delay is also constant. The time beeps are sent out at one second intervals and are therefore also received at the same time interval. In this way we establish "common time" between the two experiments. We now proceed to measure the acceleration of the smaller mass due to the larger mass again. We have already found that activity slows down in a gravity field by the factor "c/C", and it can be readily shown that the associated accelerations have the ratio "c.c/C.C". For example in the rotation of a wheel, the centripetal acceleration of any point on its rim varies as the square of the speed of rotation, so halving the speed of rotation reduces the acceleration to a quarter of the previous value. Thus, the gravitational acceleration "g(m,P") measured in our experiment at a gravity potential "P" is: g(m,P) = g(m).c.c/(C.C) (43) which tells us that the gravity effect decreases as the gravity potential increases. Recall the definition of "P" as given in EQUATION (13), PART 2: dP = g.dr (13) We already know from EQUATION (15) PART 2 that c/C goes to zero as "P" approaches "C.C/2". Thus our "dP" above vanishes because "g" goes to zero. This tells us that it is not possible to increase "P" beyond the limit "C.C/2" because the increments of "P", namely "dP", vanish despite additions of more mass or increased compaction of existing matter. We can use EQUATION (43) to calculate the gravity potential inside a shell of matter as shown in FIGURE 7, PART 2, which we choose because of its simplicity. The equation for the normalized gravity potential "Pg" is: Pg = 2.P/(C.C) = 1 - exp(-Pn) (44) where Pn = 2.M.G/(R.C.C) (45) is the normalized gravity potential as calculated using Newton's theory of gravity, in which "M" and "G" are at rest values at infinity, and "C" is also the "at infinity" value. The operator "exp" raises the number 2.718...(a number very useful in mathematics) to the power "-Pn". Compare this with the operator "EXP(x) which raises the number "10" to the power "x". The "shape" of EQUATION (44) can be appreciated from the table:
which shows that at low potentials the Newtonian value is close to the actual potential, but at high potentials the discrepancy blows out to infinity. A typical star is clearly not a hollow shell of matter, and the procedure for calculating the potential is more complicated, but the general trend will be the same. We could also argue that one can not increase "P" beyond the limiting value, because when "c=0" no change in potential can propagate. We can now say that it is not even possible to generate a change in "P", let alone propagate it, at the limiting potential. ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY A detailed exploration of "artificial gravity" must begin with a detailed electromagnetic theory which can generate it, and must then be supported by an appropriate experimental program. In developing our theory of gravity, we were guided by the many gravity experiments which have been carried out from the perspective of Newton's theory of gravity and General Relativity. Consequently this theory is far better founded on experiment than a theory on artificial gravity could be at this point. It will be necessary to develop an electromagnetic theory which can explain the quantization of energy and angular momentum, and provide more detail about the creation of natural gravity fields than what has been presented so far. For the present we will be content to examine the "resonating electromagnetic field" of Williamson and the "magnetic resonance" and "mutual resonance of fields" of Fry. It may be regarded as a preliminary survey of possibilities guided by information from these two writers, and our theory on how Nature produces gravity. We will examine some examples of "resonance", and see if any are particularly aptly described by these phrases. Fry's data makes reference to "power coils" so we can at least assume that whatever the details may be the technology includes electrical conductors like wires. 1. L/C resonance Many electronic circuits particularly radio, TV, mobile phones etc require electromagnetic resonance in circuits. The resonance is created between an inductor "L" (or coil) and a capacitor "C" as shown schematically in FIGURE 14. The coil stores magnetic energy when electric current flows through it, and the capacitor stores electrostatic energy when opposed electric charges have accumulated on its conductive plates.  In FIGURE 14 the switch in the circuit is initially open and the capacitor is charged. The coil current is zero and nothing is happening until we close the switch. The capacitor has a natural tendency to discharge itself, and now current begins to flow in the coil. The natural tendency of the coil is to keep its current constant, and to resist rapid changes in current. Thus, it takes time for the capacitor to discharge itself, and throughout this time the coil current has been increasing. At the moment when the capacitor has completely discharged itself, the current has peaked and begins to charge the capacitor up in reverse of the earlier charge. When we started, the coil had zero magnetic energy and the capacitor had a quantity of electrostatic energy. Now, with the capacitor discharged, its energy is zero and that very energy is now stored in the coil as magnetic energy. As indicated, the natural tendency of the coil is to maintain its present current in a manner similar to a mass trying to maintain its state of motion. This continuing current now charges the capacitor in reverse, and energy is being transferred from the coil back to the capacitor. In due course, the coil current has fallen to zero and the capacitor though charged in reverse, has all its initial energy back. The current now reverses in the coil and another half cycle of activity will bring us back to our starting point. This behaviour is called "oscillation" because variables like voltage, current, charge etc go through a cyclic variation and that is what oscillation is. This oscillation has a definite duration or period. The bigger the coil and/or capacitor the bigger the period. In fact the period depends on the number obtained by multiplying together the value of the capacitance and the inductance, ie "L.C". The number "L.C" corresponds very strongly with our electromagnetic constant for space, "e.u". FIGURE 15 shows two circuits like that of Figure 14 with their respective coils in close proximity. When one circuit is made to oscillate, the coil of the second circuit can pick up energy from the active coil. If the period of the second circuit happens to be close to the period of the active circuit, the two circuits will oscillate together. The passive circuit is said to "resonate" to the driven circuit and tends to settle down to a definite phase relationship with the vibrations in the driven circuit. Thus, "resonance" may involve two oscillators and at least one of them must be powered from some source.  The Circuit of FIGURE 14 is often called a "resonant" circuit even by itself, because it resonates with whatever source of energy will drive it at its "resonant" frequency. Note that the "oscillators" of FIGURES 14 and 15 share the feature that the magnetic energy and the electrostatic energy typically exist in different spaces, and this energy surges back and forth from one to the other. The horizontal conductors of FIGURE 14 act as a transmission line to the flow of that energy, much as transmission lines bring energy to our homes. 2. A Radio Antenna FIGURE 16 shows a popular "half wave" radio antenna. It is a metal rod or tube of carefully measured length. Near its middle we have a wire loop fed by a transmission line, which uses magnetic coupling to feed energy into the antenna. If this energy is supplied at the antenna's resonant frequency, a powerful electrical oscillation will be built up in the space around the antenna. The middle part of the antenna acts like a coil and its extremities act like an open-air capacitor.  The vibration process will be like that for FIGURE 14, even though the "circuit" looks very different. Electric current surges up and down the middle portion of the bar, charging up the end portions cyclically. As a consequence, the magnetic energy of the antenna vibration will appear in the space around the middle portion of the rod and the electrostatic energy will accumulate in the space around the ends of the rod. Energy surges from the middle part of the rod in both directions, towards the ends of the rod and back again to the middle portion as the oscillation proceeds. This opposed flow of energy is a feature of "standing waves". The reason we call this "oscillator" an "antenna" is that while the above electromagnetic vibration goes on, a much weaker field radiates away sideways from the antenna in all directions, taking energy away into the surrounding space. This radiation makes radio communication possible. Note that while transmission line energy flows along the transmission line, the radiated energy flows at right angles to the transmission line. The radiated disturbance corresponds to the agitation of FIGURE 12(b) which can generate electric shear, and is linked in our theory to natural gravity. The action of an antenna is entirely reversible. If a relatively weak radio signal is passing by the antenna, it is captured and creates a relatively strong "resonance" in the antenna, allowing the signal to be detected. This resonance is also a way of "tuning" the antenna to a particular frequency, making it much more sensitive to that frequency than to others. Note that in this case the electric and magnetic energies share space to a limited extent. We assume that Fry's "resonance of fields" indicates a situation in which the exchange of energy between an electric and magnetic field happens in the same space. FIGURE 17 shows an arrangement of antennas where the magnetic space of one overlaps the electric space of the other. In this arrangement the "resonance of fields" may be stronger. Note that an arrangement like this can be formed into a closed loop. Indeed, standing waves can be set up in a closed loop, and if there are two such loops in close proximity, the nodes of each may be so positioned that the magnetic fields of one overlaps the electric fields of the other.  Although UFO's have been reported to create electromagnetic effects, they do not appear to be particularly noisy with radio type emissions, even though their electromagnetic activity can probably be measured in megawatts or gigawatts. A half wave antenna whose resonance was at such a power level would transmit to the entire planet. Hence we are looking for a resonance with minimal radio emissions. 3. A Shielded Antenna FIGURE 18(a) shows a half wave antenna enclosed in a cylindrical tube with open ends, slightly longer than the antenna. The enclosing cylinder can be tuned to reflect any radiated energy back onto the antenna, so greatly reducing radio emission and hence preventing energy loss. Indeed we now have two conductive elements resonating against each other.  FIGURE 18(b) shows an equivalent arrangement where the central half wave antenna rod is surrounded by two equally spaced passive rods slightly longer than the antenna, which also have the effect of suppressing radio emissions from the antenna. The question is: does this configuration, when driven at high intensity generate a gravity-like effect? We know that natural gravity cannot be shielded against, so we need not reject arrangements which block radio emissions for example, because radio type emissions are not what we are looking for. The shielded antenna prevents the loss of energy from the oscillators by radio emission, allowing us to generate more intense vibrations with the same amount of electrical power. In the space around the shielded antenna we have the electric displacement fields of the electrons in the antenna being agitated intensely, and the displacement fields of the electrons in the shielding members agitated intensely as well, but in opposition, so that the electromagnetic effects tend to cancel. We say "tend" because we deliberately allow a slight leakage which is a consequence of the shielding rods being some distance from the active rod. Thus, we may find that the arrangement of FIGURE 18(b) works better than Figure 18(a) in respect of producing an artificial gravity field. The arrangements of FIGURE 18, in which there is a strong magnetic coupling between the antenna and shielding elements, may be regarded as the "magnetic resonance" of Fry, and corresponds to FIGURE 15. We could go on and devise every conceivable kind of E/M resonance arrangement, but to decide if they have any gravity field effects we have to perform experiments. Since we presently lack a detailed theory of antigravity which might guide us further, we must resort to experimentation. 4. General Comments We have explained natural gravity as a result of standing wave type vibrations emanating principally from atomic nuclei whose internal vibrations agitate their external electric displacement fields. Our "shielded antenna" also agitates the electric displacement fields of the electrons in the antenna and its reflectors, so that we may regard it as resembling the atomic nucleus in this respect. Even if this arrangement were to prove to be an inefficient antigravity generator, we can still expect that it might generate a detectable gravity field if driven intensely enough. From that point it would be a matter of further experimentation to discover an arrangement efficient enough to be practical. CONCLUSIONS We have presented an explanation of natural gravity which meets some of the requirements of such a force field, like the inverse fourth power of radius energy density distribution, the permanent confinement of this energy, and its dynamic equilibrium with the atomic core energy. It is only a start. A fully detailed explanation will require further developments in electromagnetic theory, some of which have been hinted at, and the relevant supporting experimentation. We have explored electromagnetic resonance and present the shielded half wave antenna as an arrangement which seems to model the atomic nucleus in the generation of a gravity effect. It is possible that other arrangements will be more efficient than the shielded antenna, but since the ET sources are limited in detail, it will be necessary to resort to experimentation in order to make further progress. Despite their brevity, the ET sources have led us to a theory of gravity and a line of investigation, which if found to be correct, will have prevented much aimless searching. Dr Gottschall invites comment and is happy to enter into dialogue with interested parties. Please click here to contact Dr Gottschall: info@acufos.asn.au For more of Dr Gottschall's articles, please click here
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